By: Dr. Meraj Ahmad Meraj
- Al-Haytham: If there is an individual name that is synonymous with the history of the development of physics, it has to be Al-Haytham’s. Al-Haytham’s involvement and contribution in the science of physics, particularly in the area of optics, can be described as one of the fullest, from the establishment of the science of optics as a field by itself to the development of theories and having made remarkable contributions towards optics, he is also regarded as the father of modern optics. His book “Kitab al-Manazir” “the optical thesaurus” is one of the leading classics which influenced scientific thought for more than six centuries. The “Kitab Al-Manazir” is more of an experimental and mathematical investigation on the properties of light that is related to vision, rather than a philosophical dissertation.42
- Abu al-Rihan Al-Beruni: Al -Biruni is a renowned physicist, who determined the specific density of 18 types of precious stones. He established the rule which stated that the specific density of body suits the volume of the water which makes it move. He also interpreted the exit of water from geysers and artesian wells in the light of the theory of communicating vessels. One of the most important of al-Biruni’s many texts is Shadows which he is thought to have written around 1021. The contents of the work include the Arabic nomenclature of shade and shadows, strange phenomena involving shadows, gnomonic, the history of the tangent and secant functions, applications of the shadow functions to the astrolabe and to other instruments, shadow observations for the solution of various astronomical problems, and the shadow-determined times of Muslim prayers. Shadows are an extremely important source for our knowledge of the history of mathematics, astronomy, and physics. Topics in physics that were studied by al-Biruni comprised hydrostatics and made very accurate measurements of specific weights. He defined the ratios between the densities of gold, mercury, lead, silver, bronze, copper, brass, iron, and tin. Al-Biruni displayed the results as combinations of integers and numbers of the form 1/n, n = 2, 3, 4… 10. 43
- Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahman Mansour al-Khāzini: Abuul Fath Al-Khazni was an incomparable physicist, particularly in relation with dynamics and hydrostatics to the extent that the succeeding researchers have been startled. His theories have been still calculated in the field of kinetics at schools and universities up till now. Among these theories are the Theory of Obliquity and Inclination and the Theory of Impulse. These two theories played an important role in kinetics. A lot of historians in the field of science regard Al-Khazani the physicist of all physicists. He dedicated most of his time to study hydrostatics; he developed a device to determine the specific gravity of liquids. He further studied the issue of resistance the body faced when it got into water. Al-Khazani operated the same apparatus used by his great master Al-Biruni to determine the specific gravity of some solid and liquid materials. The measurements of Al-Khazani were so accurate that they startled his contemporaries and successors. Al-Khazini pointed out that air had weight and power to boost things like air, adding that the weight of the object in the air weighs less than its actual weight and its condensed weight depends on the density of air. It is worth to note that these studies concreted the way for the inventions of the barometer, air vacuums and pumps among others. His best-known works are “The Book of the Balance of Wisdom”. 44
Chemistry
The Arabic word, al-kimmiyâ means quantity. It is to designate the science of chemistry. Chemistry is fundamentally based on experimentation with substances, turning one substance or matter into another by means of experimentation and laboratory work. This has been mainly the work of Muslims, and Muslims alone. The Muslims relied on experimentation. Such an approach was championed very early in particular by Al-Razi, who may be considered consequently the father of modern chemistry.45 Although scientists such as al-Kindi and Ibn Sina in his “Kitab al-shifa” “the book of healing” devote some interest to the subject, and although there were tens of other Muslims who were involved in the science, there were primarily three Muslim chemists, truly masters of their science. These were in the chronology of their lives: Jabir, Al-Razi and al-Majriti. - Jabir ibn Hayyan: Jabir Ibn Hayyan was born in 702 A.D. He is known as Geber in western name, the father of modern chemistry and along with Zakariya Razi, who is the greatest name in the chemical science. The book “Al Khawass al-kabir” written by the Jabir Bin Hayyan was considered as the Bible of chemistry until the 18th century. He invented a kind of paper that resisted fire and an ink that could be read at night.46 He also identified many new products, including alkaline, acids, salts, paints and greases. He prepared caustic soda and a multitude of salts such as sulphates. Some of Jabir’s writings include “Al Khawass al-kabir” “the Great Book of Chemical properties”, “al-Mawazin”, “Weights and measures”, “Al-Mizaj”, “Chemical combination” and “Al-Asbagh”, “Dyes‟. His influence may be traced throughout the whole historic course of European alchemy and chemistry and even in the modern chemistry.
- Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi: He is known as Rhazes for the western world, was one of the most prolific Muslim doctors and probably second only to Ibn Sina in his accomplishments. He wrote more than 200 books, including “Kitab al-Mansuri” and “al-Hawi” an encyclopedia of medicine in 20 volumes. In his work Secret of Secrets, he made the very useful classification of natural substances, dividing them into earthly, vegetable and animal substances. He added his remarks based on his experiments and observations. He classified substance in two categories; vegetable, animal or mineral, while the other alchemists divided substances into three categories; bodies, souls and spirits. Before he left chemistry for medicine, where he became one of the leading authorities, and occupied eminent functions in Baghdad as physician, he was also the founding father of truly modern chemistry. He was a pure rationalist, no nonsense scientist, who only believed in experimentation and concrete evidence, and never refrained from demolishing all previous speculative and erroneous conclusions, Al-Razi was interested in the medical uses of chemical compounds. 47
- Abu al-Qasim al-Qurtubi al-Majriti: One of the Muslim chemist who deserve mention here is the Spanish Muslim court scientist al-Majriti from Madrid (950-1007). He was particularly noted for his work “Rutbat Al-Hakim”, “The Rank of the Wise” which amongst other things gives formulae and instructions for purification of precious metals. It was collected and put together in the year 1009, two years after his death. In this work, Al-Majriti was also the first to prove the principle of conservation of mass, credited eight centuries later to the French Lavoisier .48
The science of Chemistry is unquestionably the invention of the Muslims. It is one of the great branches of science in which Muslims have made the greatest contributions and developed it to such a high degree of perfection that they are considered authorities in this science.
Pharmacology
In connection with chemistry, a large interest was devoted to pharmacology, in recent studies; this subject was examined in the context of Arabic chemistry. It was with this intermediary that several works of Muslim scholars were published and analyzed, such as al-Kindi’s and al-Zahrawi’s chemical investigation aiming at the creation of drugs.49 The Muslims used in many ways the same methods, means and techniques in both chemistry and pharmacology to produce drugs. They prepared products they used for healing including camphor, alum, ambergris etc. Under Islamic civilization, this profession of pharmacist came into existence; the first shops were opened in the early 9th century in Baghdad. The Muslims were excellent organizers of knowledge, and so their pharmacological texts were directed carefully along the many directions which were either promising or useful to the apothecary and medical practitioner. These treatises as a result generally are more or less within well delineated groups. Some of the major types of Muslim pharmacological literatures are Sabur Ibn Sahl, Abu Mansur Muwaffaq, Al-Biruni and many more imminent Muslim pharmacologists who made a great contribution in this field. - Sabur Ibn Sahl: Sabur Ibn Sahl: (d 869) was the first physician to initiate pharmacopoeia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies to ailments. In the 10th century, Abu Mansur Muwaffaq of Herat wrote “The foundations of the true properties of Remedies” where he described 585 drugs.50
- Al-Biruni: Al-Biruni (d. 1051) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled “Kitab al-Saydanah” “The Book of Drugs” where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of phar Biruni’s most important work was a major pharmacopoeia, the “Kitab al-saydala fi al-tibb” (Book on the Pharmacopoeia of Medicine), describing essentially all the medicines known in his time.macy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. 51
- Ibn Sina: Popularly known as “Avicenna”, Ibn Sina was indeed a true polymath with his contributions ranging from medicine, psychology and pharmacology to geology, physics, astronomy, chemistry and philosophy. He was also a poet and an Islamic scholar and theologian. His most important contribution to medical science was his famous book al-Qanun, known as the “Canon” in the West. He described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in his Canon.52
As medical science developed, knowledge about pharmacology was systematically collected in written form. Pharmacologists working in the Islamic tradition were able to include drugs known to a wide variety of peoples. The Muslim pharmacologists developed this branch of modern science and made their immense contribution to cure the pain of the people by using different kinds of chemicals. They made science of pharmacology and compound cures, and set up the first pharmacies on the modern model. (to be cont.)
References:
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9. Levey, M. (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources, Brill Archive; 179.
10. Meyerhoff, M. (1931). Science and Medicine, in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Thomas Arnold & A. Guillaume, Oxford UP, 311-55.