Dr. Meraj Ahmad Meraj

The Impact of Islamic Civilization on Western Culture
By the sixteenth century, Islamic civilization was among the most widespread and important civilizations on earth. Islamic civilization’s achievements and positive contributions to the world and the European Renaissance have not received due recognition. Islam was the first to create a civilisation that was multiracial, multicultural and intercontinental. The Renaissance and modern Western civilization owe much more to Islamic civilization than has been acknowledged. They have also noted that Islamic civilization was neither dogmatic nor exclusive in its dealings with non-Muslims. Islam was the first to make significant progress towards what it perceived as its universal mission while western civilization is accorded the first to embrace the whole planet. The influence of the Islamic civilization over Western culture was so great and diverse that it is visible even today in many of the names of things and articles of ordinary use. Science owes a great deal more to Arab culture.

From the fifth century BC, Jabir b. Hayyan d. 200AH/815AD Geber in Medieval Europe was said to be the first Muslim Scientist to appear between 750-800 periods, followed by Al-Khwarizmi d.850, Khiva among the West, Al-Razi d.925, Rhazes, Mas’ud d.957, Abu Al-Wafa d.997, Al-Biruni d.1050 and Umar al-Khayyam d.1124. The Muslim Philosophers and Scientists appear to be in full control of the world stage of science for about three hundred and fifty years. They significantly contributed to human knowledge in various fields through their innovations. This contribution was so great that Islamic civilization has been the pioneer of the scientific, intellectual and cultural genius for a long period of time, with the West benefiting from its great achievements. Muslim scientists added vast areas to their territory. They could geographically expand the initial religious government which the Prophet had formed in Medina. Their government covered a large part of western Asia and northern Africa in addition to the Arabian Peninsula. They formed such a great government that within a short period of time most developed areas of the then civilized world were included in it. Muslims inherited the ancient civilizations and their heritage has dated back to the time of the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Iranians and the Egyptians. Being fascinated with sciences, Muslim Scientists acquired, assimilated and modified the rational and artistic heritage in cooperation with the scholastic figures of the very conquered lands. They also developed their specific culture and civilization [14].

The first and most forceful scientific and philosophical activities of the middle age from medicine and mathematics to astronomy and alchemy were found in the territory of the Prophet[15]. In Spain, the Islamic civilization reached such a peak that in terms of scientific development, it was the honour of all cities around the world for three hundred years. The Islamic civilization had been shining in the present-day Spain. The Islamic civilization in Spain encompasses many fields that left a profound imprint in the Iberian Peninsula and Europe. The cultural climate of Spain in the era of Muslim rule (711-1492) brought about a prospering of different aspects of science and culture. The Impact of Arab math and science on Western civilization is evident in the scientific and mathematical language we use even today. Many scientific words in English derived from Arabic, like alchemy, algebra, al kalian, antimony, chemistry, elixir, zero, alcohol, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, cipher, sine, and zenith. In addition, many stars discovered by the Arab astronomers still bear Arabic names, for instance, the stars that comprises the tail of the constellation Cygnus is called “Daneb” the Arabic word of tail.

Contribution of Islamic Civilization to the Development of Science and Technology
Islam created a world of civilization in which people of many different ethnic backgrounds participated and played a central role in developing intellectual and cultural life. Islamic civilization played indelible roles to advancement of society as well as sciences, for instance, Al-Harith b. Kaladah of Ta’if d.634CE/14AH) known as “Doctor of the Arabs” was the pioneer of Arab knowledge of science. It was the Arabs who injected the spirit of inquiry into Europeans. Muslim Scientists invented the numerical systems and algebra. Muhammad b. Musa, in the realm of Physics invented pendulum. The Muslim mathematicians such as Al-Khwarzimi, Muhammad b.Zakariya not only did pioneer the theory of algorism but also were the first to use decimal notion. Some chemicals were also discovered by Muslim Scientists. These chemicals inclued sulphuric acid, nitric acid, potassium, ammonia salt, alcohol, preparation of mercury. Ibn Zuhr known in Europe by Avenzoar introduced surgery as well as pharmacology in the 12th century. Abu Ali Husayn Ibn Sina known in Europe as Avicenna was regarded as the great physician. Indeed, his book Magnum Opus “Al- Qanoon” served as a veritable material for several centuries especially in the European Universities. Abu Bakr Muhammad Al-Razi made his indelible print in the field of medicine. The Muslim Scientists developed original concepts in physics and chemistry, for instance, Al- Hazim had a pioneering work on optics. About twenty-one scientific discoveries invented by the early Muslim scientists. The contributions made by Muslims to the various branches of science, especially to mathematics and astronomy cannot be overlooked or ignored. From 9th to 13th centuries, Muslim Scientists were acknowledged as the world leaders in the development of the Arts and Sciences.

Muslim Scientists calculated the angle of the ecliptic, measure the size of the earth, calculated the possession of the Equinoxes and invented the pendulum clock, explained in the field of optics and physics, such phenomena as refraction of light, gravity, capillary attraction and twilight[16]. In the field of chemistry, Muslim scholarship led to the discovery of such substances as potash, alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid sulphuric acid and mercuric chloride. It also developed to a high degree of perfection the arts of textiles, ceramics and metallurgy.
Contribution of Muslim Scientists to the Various Streams of Modern Sciences

In Islam, nature is not seen as a separate entity, rather as an integral part of Islam’s holistic outlook on God, humanity and the world. This link implies a sacred aspect to the pursuit of scientific knowledge by Muslims, as nature itself is viewed in the Qur’an as a compilation of signs pointing to the Divine. The Qur’an encourages its followers for the acquisition of science and scientific knowledge. Not only this, it also urges humans to reflect on the natural phenomena as signs of God’s creation. Some scientific instruments produced in classical times in the Islamic world were inscribed with Qur’anic citations. Arab Muslims became the touch bearers of science and learning. Islamic teaching encouraged and promoted the pursuit of scholarship and science. Seeking knowledge about the natural world was seen as the duty of every Muslim as the following Hadith says: “He who pursues the road of knowledge, Allah will direct to the road of Paradise” [17]. Muslim mathematicians were interested in number systems. They used two main systems of numerals: the abjjad system which used letters of the Arabic alphabet to represent numbers, and the Hindu-Arabic numerals which is now used in the West including zero. This replaced the awkward Roman numeral system in medieval times. They also borrowed a number system from the Babylonians which was based on 60, just like the minutes and seconds in our time system.

Astronomy
Astronomy may be the oldest natural science in the world. Before humans ever took to systematically studying the skies, we were craning our necks upwards, observing the curious movements of some bright points of light, and the stillness of others. Civilizations around the world have incorporated astronomical observations into everything from their architecture to their storytelling and while the pinnacle of the science is most commonly thought to have been during the Renaissance, While Europe was in an intellectual coma, the Islamic empire which stretched from Moorish Spain, to Egypt and even China, was entering their “Golden Age”. Astronomy was of particular interest to Islamic scholars in Iran and Iraq and until this time around 800 AD. Muslim Scientists made significant contributions in the field of astronomy which is greatly acknowledged in the history text[18]. Muslims have always had a special interest in astronomy. The moon and the sun are of vital importance in the daily life of every Muslim. By the moon, Muslims determine the beginning and the end of the months in their lunar calendar. By the sun the Muslims calculate the times for prayer and fasting. The math required for astronomy was also advanced in large part by Muslim Scientists. They developed spherical trigonometry and algebra, two forms of math fundamentals to precise calculations of the stars.

1. Ibn Yunus: Ibn Yunus’s full name is Abu’l-Hasan Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi. In the 10th century it was still believed that Earth was at the center of the universe. This discovery by Ibn Yunus and others like Ibn al-Shatir changed the landscape of astronomy forever. The heliocentric model eventually proposed by Copernicus in the 16th century was built on this body of work. Ibn Yunus’s major work, an astronomical handbook was “al-Zij al-Hakimi al-kabir” ‘Al-kabir” which means ‘large’. The book is certainly large containing 81 chapters. There are lists of observations made by Yunus and also observations made by his predecessor [19].
   
2. Abdur Rahman al-Sufi: One of Iran‟s most famous astronomers Abdur Rahman al-Sufi published The Book of Fixed Stars, one of the most comprehensive texts on constellations in the sky. Abdur Rahman al-Sufi was also the first astronomer to observe the Andromeda galaxy and the Large Magellan Cloud. These observations would have been made purely with the naked eye since the telescope hadn’t yet been created. He marked it down as a “cloud” in his notes. This work would later prove to be useful to the famed Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe [20].
   
3. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: In the 13th century, a Muslim scientists Nasir al-Din al-Tusi created the famous Tusi Couple. Tusi couple was able to demonstrate linear motion out of the opposing directions by placing a smaller circle within a larger one. The Tusi Couple would later become critical to Copernicus‟ understanding of these motions during his work in the Renaissance. Nasir Ad-Din At-Tusi was appointed as a chief scientist at the observatory by Hulagu Khan, who was deeply impressed by At Tusi’s knowledge, particularly astrological knowledge. Nasir Ad-Din At-Tusi produced astronomical tables called Ilkhanid Tables and a catalogue of fixed stars, which would be used for a few centuries around the world [21].
   
4. Ibn al-Haytham: One of most famous astronomers and scientific thinkers, Ibn al-Haytham is known as “the father of optics” because he was the first person to crack the code about how we perceive light. His work developed the camera obscure and eventually aided in the development of the telescope. The most significant contribution Ibn al-Haytham gave to the world was a methodical way of conducting experiments repeatedly in order to test a theory. This became known as the scientific method[22].
   
5. Al-Battani: Al-Battani was born in Harran ca. 859 in the present-day Turkey. His Latinized name is “Albategnius” [23] and his well-known discovery is the precise determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds. His outstanding observations of solar and lunar eclipses were used by Dethrone in 1749 to determine the secular acceleration of the Moon. Al-Battani wrote The Sabian tables named al-Zij al-Sabi, a very influential work for centuries after him[24]. Al-Battani discovered the notions of trigonometrical ratios used today.
   
6. Al-Farghani: Al-Farghani is a Persian astronomer born in modern-day Uzbekistan in a city later named after him “Farghana”. Al-Fargani‟s Latinized name is “Alfraganus”[25]. He determined the diameter of the Earth to be 6,500 miles and also calculated the diameters of planets. Al-Farghani created an Arabic summary of Ptolemy’s Almagest around 833 and wrote Elements of Astronomy “Kitab fi al-Harakat as-Samawiya wa Jawami Ilm an-Nujum” which was translated into Latin in the 12th century. It was from this book that Dante derived the astronomical knowledge displayed in the “Vita Nuova”[26].
   
   The work of the Muslim astronomers who lived between 9th and 12th centuries was both innovative and accurate. Many of the most basic concepts of modern astronomy were either developed directly by them, or came about through their influence on later astronomers.
   
   References:
7. 14. Hatta, The History of the Arabs pp. 154 & 223-4 15. Charles Homer Haskins, C. H. (1971). The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, Cambridge, Mass, U.S.A., 882. 16. Brittanica, E. (1986). Encyclopaedia Brittanica.
8. Muslim: Hadith No. 2699
9. Patrick, H. (2009). “Roger Bacon” Great Lives from History: Inventors and Inventions, (1). Salem Press.
10. Caussin de Perceval, A. P. (1804). Le livre de la grande table Hakémite, Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque nationale, 7, 16-240.2. 20. Kepple, G. R., & Sanner, G. W. (1998). The Night Sky Observer’s Guide (p. M45). Willmann-Bell, 18.
11. Salim, T. S., & Al-Hassani. (2007). 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World. 2nd ed. UK: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 289.
12. Toomer, G. J. (1963). Review on JSTOR, Toomer’s 1964 review of Matthias Schramm Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik Toomer, 464.
13. Salim, T. S., & Al-Hassani. (2007). 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World, 2nd ed. UK: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 283.
14. Ibid, P. 278.
15. Ibid, P.127.