By: Dr. Meraj Ahmad Meraj

Geography
Islam urged people to open their minds and horizons, and know about the wonders of God’s creation and thus Muslim geographers ventured across the known and unknown world. Arab geographers were the most versed in the knowledge of paths, roads and routes. They determined routes on land and at sea with the help of stars. Some pieces of knowledge in astronomy helped them to determine the weather, time of sowing, etc. At the time of Abbasids, Muslim scholars took a keen interest in the shape of the Earth and everything on its surface. Thus, Caliph Abu Jafar al-Mansur ordered to translate some sciences, particularly astronomy, into Arabic. It was then that Claudius Ptolemy’s book “Geography” was translated into Arabic at the request of Caliph al-Ma’mun[27].

This book was frequently referred to in the works of the great mathematician and astronomer al-Khwarizmi. His book “The Shape of the Earth” opened a new age in the geographical knowledge. In the 2rd-3rd centuries AH, astronomy in the Islamic world gained a widespread development. Thus, in the 4th century AH, Muslim scholars laid the foundation for a descriptive geography, which was based on the maps. Arab geographers were the most versed in the knowledge of paths, roads and routes. They were able to determine the precise distance of communication lines. Among these geographers are Ibn Khardazabah and Abu al-Faraj Ibn Jafar. “Al-Masalik wal-Mamalik”, (Roads and Provinces) written by Ibn Khardazabah is considered to be the first book in the school of Islamic geography. Among the earliest Muslim geographers were al-Khwarizmi, the mathematician, who participated in a project to draw a map of the known earth in the early 9th century CE.

Al-Kindi, the philosopher, wrote an account of the inhabited parts of earth as known then. Some of the greatest traveler-geographers were Ibn Hawqal, who traveled for over 30 years and wrote about the places and people he saw, and the famous al-Mas’udi. He traveled, quoted geographic works that have disappeared, and wrote his own encyclopaedia of geography and history called Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious Stones in 956 CE. The Muslims are considered as the forerunners of the modern concept of the philosophy of human geography.

1. Ibn Khardazabah:
   Ibn Khardazabah was a Persian by birth; he worked as chief of postal service in Maida, the mountainous province of Iran. He described in detail the sea routes leading to India and China, as well as to Central Asia, Byzantium and Andalusia. He described the culture, agriculture, plant and animal kingdoms of different countries[28].
   
2. Abu al-Faraj:
   Abu al-Faraj Kudamat Ibn Jafar headed the chancellery during the reign of al-Muktadir Billahi al-Abasi (272 AH). He travelled to all parts of the Abbasid Caliphate, using his knowledge of history, human activities, lines of communication. He wrote the book “Al-Haraj” which was constantly used by the Caliph to supervise the state of affairs in the Caliphate and to move troops to the desired location[29].
   
3. Abul-Abbas Ahmad ibn Ya’qub Ibn Ja’far:
   Abul-Abbas Ahmad Ibn Ya’qub Ibn Ja’far, known as al-Yaqubi. He made long journeys to Armenia, Iran, India, Egypt and Western countries. He wrote a book entitled “Al-Buldan” (Cities and Countries) is one of the earliest writings about geography[30].
   
4. Abul-Hasan Ali Ibn al-Husayn al-Masudi:
   Al-Mas’udi states that he was born in Baghdad and that he was a descendant of Abdullah Ibn Mas’ud, a companion of the Prophet Muhammad. He was an eminent geographer of the 4th century who travelled to the cities of the ancient world, from India to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the Red Sea to the Caspian. He also took journeys to Asia Minor and Iraq, and then settled in Egypt in 341 AH, where he died four years later. Among his books, the most famous ones are “Marwaj az-Zahab”, (The Place of Gold Sales) and “Madin ul-Jawhar” (The Place of Jewelry Extraction)[31].
   
5. Al-Bashari:
   Shamsuddin Abu Abdullah Ibn Abi Bakrin al-Maksidi, also known as al- Bashari, is one of the most significant figures of the classical Islamic geography. He visited most of the Islamic countries and wrote a book “Ahsan ut-Takasim fi Marifat il-Akalim” (The best way of regional division in terms of climate)[32].
   
   The subject of Muslim Geography is vast and requires volumes to embrace. For the Muslims in Europe and America, the life and contributions of the famous geographer Al-Idris, who lived under Roger the second, is a good example of how Muslims in the western live and still contribute in a non-Islamic society.
   
   Mathematics
   One of the most-developed fields of science in Islamic civilization was Mathematics. Although the number system which is called Arabic has originally been developed in India and introduced in the Persian Gulf by Arab travellers. In mathematics, the Arabs adopted the concept of zero from the Indians, which enabled them to develop new areas of mathematics. Some mathematics processes retain their Arabic names today, such as al-Jabr which is now referred to as Algebra. Similarly, in chemistry words like “alcohol” and “al kali” are derived from their Arabic names al-kahol and al-qaliy respectively. The Muslim Scientists developed the symbol for zero and they systematized the numbers into the decimal system. They designed the symbol to precise an unknown quantity. Here we cite short biography of these wonderful Muslim scholars who contributed in the field of Mathematics as follows:
   
   Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi:
   The first great Muslim mathematician, Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi, designed the subject of algebra which was supplementary advanced by others, most notably by Umar Khayyam. Al-Khwarizmi’s work, in Latin translation, carried the Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to Europe, through Spain. The word “algorithm” is derived from his name. Al-Khwarizmi, born in 780 A.D., was the forefather of modern Algebra[33]. He developed sine, cosine and trigonometrically tables, which were later translated to the West. His book on algebra “Hisab al-Jabr waal-Muqabalah” (The Calculation of Integration and Equation) was used until the 16th century as the principal textbook of European universities. Al-Khwarizmi also aided to announce Arabic numerals, the decimal position system, and the concept of zero. Algebra and Algorithm are in fact corruptions of his work and name. Interestingly, this book on algebra comprised many examples from the Islamic inheritance laws and how they could be answered using algebra. Under al-Mamun, the caliph of the time, he with some others was the first to map the globe[34].
   
   Ghiyath al-Din al- Kashani:
   Another exceptional mathematician was Ghiyath al-Din al-Kashani of the late fourteenth century. He functioned on the theory of numbers and techniques of computations[35]. One of his most important works was “Miftah-ul-Hissab” or “The Calculators’ Key”. In it, he defined an algorithm for finding the fifth root of any number[36]. The book was taught in Persian schools until the seventeenth century. Later in his life he relocated to Samarkand on the invitation of the ruler to support directly to a new scientific school and observatory and conduct research with other scholars of the time. Kashani also wrote on how to approximate sin by solving a cubic equation accurately.
   
   Abu Wafa Muhammad al-Buzanji:
   Abu Wafa Muhammad al-Buzanji was born in Buzjan, Nishapur in 940 A.D. He became a great mathematician and astronomer at Baghdad and died in 997 A.D. Al-Buzanji’s main contribution lies in several divisions of mathematics, in geometry and trigonometry especially. In geometry he added to a solution of geometrical problems with opening of the compass, construction of a square equivalent to other squares, regular polyhedral, construction of regular hexagon taking for its side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle. Al-Buzanji’s involvement to the progress of trigonometry was also widespread. He was the first person to show the generality of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles[37]. He established a new scheme of assembling sine tables, the value of sin 30 being correct to the eight decimal places. In addition he deliberated tangent and planned tables for them. He announced the secant and cosecant for the first time[38]. He composed a large number of books on mathematics and other subjects, most of which have been lost or exist in modified forms. A substantial part of today’s trigonometry can be copied back to him.Abu Abdullah al- Battani:
   
   Abu Abdullah al-Battani (862-929 A.D.) was son of a scientist and also a famous astronomer, mathematician and astrologer. He is often considered as one of the greatest gastronomists of Islam. In mathematics, al-Battani was the first to substitute the practice of Greek chords and the first to cultivate the concept of cotangent and provided their table in degrees. He composed a number of books on astronomy and trigonometry. Al-Battānī’s major work is Kitāb az-Zīj (Book of Astronomical Tables). It was largely based on Ptolemy’s theory[39].
   
   Mohammad Bin Ahmed:
   Mohammad Bin Ahmed in the tenth century invented the concept of zero or sifr. Thus swapping the cumbersome, Roman numerals and creating a revolution in mathematics. This directed to improvements in the calculation of the program of the worlds and progresses in the fields of astronomy and geography[40].
   
   Al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham:
   Al-Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics and astronomy during the latter half of the tenth century. Al-Haytham played an important role in setting the scene in modern science. His work “Kitab al-Manazir” Book of Optics[41] interpreted a theory of vision and a theory of light and was called by his successors of the twelfth century “Ptolemy the Second”. Al-Haytham wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics.
   
   Muslim Mathematicians added not only to the use of logic in the development of mathematical ideas but also to an effective system of numeration that involved zero and headed to the solution of equations. Muslims had thus begun the work that directed on to mathematical modelling and its application for the purpose of testing their theories. The Arabs started work on arithmetic in the second half of eight century. Their first task in this field was to systematize the use of the Hindus minerals which are now permanently associated with their names. The rapid development in mathematics in the subsequent ages could not have taken place without the use of numerals, particularly zero without which all but the simplest calculations become too cumbersome.
   
   Physics
   In fact, The natural sciences of Muslims commenced by relying on the publications of the Greeks who drew on mere philosophy in their attempt to understand nature without resorting to experimentation. However, Muslim scientists spared no efforts to develop this basis. They excelled in physics in an unprecedentedly subtle and intelligent fashion to the extent that they seemed to establish a new science. For example, they made physics rely on experimentation and induction rather than on philosophy, speculations, or mere thoughts. Muslim scientists studied acoustics, its origin and its transfer. They were the first to understand that sounds are affected by the bodies that cause them and that these sounds transfer in the air in the form of circular waves. Muslim scientists were also the first to categorize sounds into different types; they expounded that the sounds of animals differ according to the length of their necks, the width of their throats and the structure of their larynx. Muslim scientists were also the first to interpret the occurrence of echo as a reflection of the air which hits a high mountain or wall. The reflection of the echo cannot be realized due to the spatial closeness.
   [to be cont.]
   
   References:
6. Susan, L. D. (2000). “The Travels of Ibn Jubayr” Beyond A Thousand and One Nights: A Sampler of Literature from Muslim Civilization. Council on Islamic Education, 170-176.
7. Paul, L. “Al-Faraghani and the Short Degree” The Middle East and the Age of Discovery Aramco World Magazine Exhibition Issue, 43(3), 15-17.
8. Schoy, C. (1924). Geography of the Muslims of the Middle Ages, Geographical Review, (15), 257-269.
9. Encyclopedia of Britannica, 11th ed., Cambridge University Press, 904.
10. Shboul, A. (1979). Al-Mas’ ūdī and his world, 68-69.
11. Nafis, A. (1982). Muslim Contribution to Geography, Adam Publishers, New Delhi, 234.
12. Boyer, C. B. (1985). A History of Mathematics, Princeton University Press, 252.
13. Ibid, P. 228
14. Bosworth, C. E. (1990). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, (5).
15. Selin, H. (Ed.). (2013). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media.
16. Medovoi, M. I. (1960). On the Arithmetic Treatise of Abū ʾl‐Wafāʾ. Studies in the History of Mathematics, (13), 253–324
17. Ben-Menahem, A. (2009). Historical Encyclopaedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Berlin: Springer, 559.
18. Kennedy, E. S. (1956). A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables, Philadelphia, 10-11.
19. Badawi, J. A. (2002). Islamic Worldview: Prime Motive for Development. Humanomics, 18(3), 3-25.
20. Smith, A. M. (1996). Ptolemy’s Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics (Vol. 82). American Philosophical Society.
21. Haq, S. (2009). “Science in Islam”, Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Retrieved 2014-10-22